MOTIVATION

What Is Motivation? 

Definition: 

Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.

It involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In everyday usage, the term motivation is frequently used to describe why a person does something. For example, you might say that a student is so motivated to get into a clinical psychology program that she spends every night studying.

Psychologists have proposed a number of different theories of motivation, including drive theory, instinct theory and humanistic theory.

Motivation Quotes

"Reason should direct and appetite obey." - Cicero

''We all have the extraordinary coded within us, waiting to be released." - Jean Houston

''You have to learn that if you start making sure you feel good, everything will be okay." - Ruben Studdard

How To Motivate Your Self: (Motivation)

(1)Think through a set of goals that sound like what you want, and try to be specific. The key to most motivation remains setting goals, but you can't just pick any goals. 

(2)Make it general. Let's say you want a Corvette specifically, are you really saying you want a new car, or maybe just a car you can stop worrying about? Getting yourself to a reliable car is a goal that is easier to achieve and accomplishes the need you had from the get go. This is not copping out--no one needs a
Corvette.

(3)Do this with all of the goals you have, do not simply pick ones that sound good like most people pick New Year's resolutions. If the goals you set for yourself make your life easier or more rewarding, they are probably the type you need to focus on.

(4)Cut pictures out of the car that you want, or the TV, stereo, golf clubs, whatever you are aiming for, and put them up somewhere you can see them every day. On the fridge door, or on the wall next to the computer. When you look say "That's my car" or "That's my TV". Visualizing these items as yours will help keep you motivated.

(5)Anyone who has had serious issues with motivation knows that someone telling you to "stay motivated" is a bit daft, since you weren't in a motivated state to begin with, and as such, is hard to stay in. However anyone can get themselves motivated.

(6)Make your goals in the very beginning small. If you write out a long list of things that are really valuable for you to do, and then you mess one up, you're going back to starting at zero and you will likely feel pretty badly. Instead make a list for each day, and at first, only put down maybe 3 or 4 things, a set of activities that might take you 2 or 3 hours.

(7)If you can do that, then a week later start adding things in about an hour at a time and build up. It's like doing push ups in the Army, the first day you get there and feel terrible because you can't keep up with the physical training, but you build up to it. Goals and mental attitudes are the same way. You have to make it a series of small steps. Don't set yourself up for failure by reaching too high at first. You can always reach higher the next week. There's no limit here, so pace yourself.

(8)Rely upon yourself for the motivation and the drive. Other people do not have and will never have the same vested interest in your success. Motivation and success is a function of habit. You must break your bad habit of procrastination, and replace it with one of good planning. The most successful people in the world aren't always the brightest, or the best looking, but no matter what other talents or gifts they have been blessed with, they have underpinning their self esteem a series of victories over tasks both large and small. This is how you learn anything in school, gain confidence dating, and everything else in life.

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LEARNING THEORY

Learning

Leraning is the process, how an individual learn? what are the steps of learning, ? These all questions are resolver by this Leanring Theory, Whic is explained below:

According to stephen Robin " Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavor that occurs as a result of experience"

Learning Theory

The focus on process obviously takes us into the realm of learning theories – ideas about how or why change occurs. On these pages we focus on four different orientations (the first three taken from Merriam and Caffarella 1991).
    the behaviourist orientation to learning
    the cognitive orientation to learning
    the social/situational orientation to learning

The behaviourist orientation to learning

The behaviourist orientation to learning. The behaviourist movement in psychology has looked to the use of experimental procedures to study behaviour in relation to the environment.

John B. Watson, who is generally credited as the first behaviourist, argued that the inner experiences that were the focus of psychology could not be properly studied as they were not observable. Instead he turned to laboratory experimentation. The result was the generation of the stimulus-response model. In this the environment is seen as providing stimuli to which individuals develop responses.

In essence three key assumptions underpin this view:

(1) Observable behaviour rather than internal thought processes are the focus of study. In particular, learning is manifested by a change in behaviour.

(2) The environment shapes one’s behaviour; what one learns is determined by the elements in the environment, not by the individual learner.

(3) The principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 126)

The cognitive orientation to learning

The cognitive orientation to learning. Where behaviourists looked to the environment, those drawing on Gestalt turned to the individual’s mental processes. In other words, they were concerned with cognition – the act or process of knowing.

James Hartley (1998) has usefully drawn out some of the key principles of learning associated with cognitive psychology. As he puts it: ‘Learning results from inferences, expectations and making connections. Instead of acquiring habits, learners acquire plans and strategies, and prior knowledge is important’ (1998: 18). The principles he identifies are:

() Instruction should be well-organized. Well-organized materials easier to learn and to remember.
() Instruction should be clearly structured. Subject matters are said to have inherent structures – logical relationships between key ideas and concepts – which link the parts together.
() The perceptual features of the task are important. Learners attend selectively to different aspects of the environment. Thus, the way a problem is displayed is important if learners are to understand it.
() Prior knowledge is important. Things must fit with what is already known if it is to be learnt.
() Differences between individuals are important as they will affect learning. Differences in ‘cognitive style’ or methods of approach influence learning.
() Cognitive feedback gives information to learners about their success or failure concerning the task at hand. Reinforcement can come through giving information – a ‘knowledge of results’ – rather than simply a reward.

The social/situational orientation to learning

The social/situational orientation to learning. It is not so much that learners acquire structures or models to understand the world, but they participate in frameworks that that have structure. Learning involves participation in a community of practice.

Social learning theory ‘posits that people learn from observing other people. By definition, such observations take place in a social setting’ (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 134). Within psychology, initially it was behaviourists who looked to how people learned through observation. Later researchers like Albert Bandura looked to interaction and cognitive processes. One thing that observation does is to allow people to see the consequences of other’s behaviours. They can gain some idea of what might flow from acting in this way or that.

A more radical model – situated learning – has been put forward by Lave and Wenger (1991). Rather than looking to learning as the acquisition of certain forms of knowledge, they have tried to place it in social relationships – situations of co-participation.

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What Is Organizational Behavior

What Is Organizational Behavior?

 

Definition of Organizational Behaviour:

Organizational Behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness.
An organization is a collection of people who work together to achieve a wide variety of goals, both goals of the various individuals in the organization and goals of the organization as a whole. Organizations exist to provide goods and services that people want. 
These goods and services are the products of the behaviors of workers. Organizational behavior is the study of the many factors that have an impact on how individuals and groups respond to and act in organizations and how organizations manage their environments. Although many people assume that understanding human behavior in organizations is intuitive, many commonly held beliefs about behavior in organizations, such as the idea that a “happy worker is a productive worker,” are either entirely false or true only in specific situations. The study of organizational behavior provides a set of tools—concepts and theories—that help people understand, analyze, and describe what goes on in organizations and why. How do the characteristics of individuals, groups, work situations, and the organization itself affect how members feel about their organization? The ability to use the tools of organizational behavior to understand behavior in organizations is one reason for studying this subject. A second reason is to learn how to apply these concepts, theories, and techniques to improve behavior in organizations so that individuals, groups, and organizations can achieve their goals. Managers are challenged to find new ways to motivate and coordinate employees to ensure that their goals are aligned with organizational goals.

Why Do We Study OB? 

Following are the reasons to study organizational behavior:
• To learn about yourself and how to deal with others
• You are part of an organization now, and will continue to be a part of various organizations
• Organizations are increasingly expecting individuals to be able to work in teams, at least some of the time
• Some of you may want to be managers or entrepreneurs

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Cloud Storage

 Cloud Storage

Cloud Storage

What is Cloud Storage

Cloud storage means "the storage of data online in the cloud," wherein a company's data is stored in and accessible from multiple distributed and connected resources that comprise a cloud.

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Labor Factor Of Production

Labor

Labor represents the human capital available to transform raw or national resources into consumer goods. Human capital includes all able-bodied individuals capable of working in the nation’s economy and providing various services to other individuals or businesses. This factor of production is a flexible resource as workers can be allocated to different areas of the economy for producing consumer goods or services. Human capital can also be improved through training or educating workers to complete technical functions or business tasks when working with other economic resources.

Characteristics of Labor

Some of the characteristics of labour are as follows:

1. Labor is In-separable Form of Labourer

A Labourer cannot work without his labour. Whatever he performs is a result of his mental and physical exertion. Both cannot be separated from each other. The main driving force of a labourer is his labour. It may not happen that a labourer remains at home and ask his labour to go for work. It is covert i.e. it is present within a human being.

2. Labor is Indispensable for Production

As a matter of fact production is not possible without labour. In other words production is the aftermath of labour. Labour is necessary to activate production process. Every aspect of production ranging from purchase of raw material to final distribution in the market entirely depends upon labour. As a general rule, “efficient labour gives efficient production.”

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Job Acceptance Letter

You have been offered a job in a firm. Write a letter of acceptance. 

Job Acceptance Letter

80-A Omer Hayat Block
ICOBHS, MIT Road

Lahore

27 November 1997
Mr. Omer Iman
Director HR
X.Y.Z. Karachi

Dear Sir

JOB ACCEPTANCE LETTER

Reference is made to your letter No. 262/59/Job dated 5 september,2008 confirming my position as director Finance in your esteemed organization. . It was my long cherished desire to be a part of your team and I extend my humble thanks to you and your organization for my selection.
I will join my service on 15th December as per mentioned in contract.

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PAKISTAN ARMY

PAKISTAN ARMY

Pakistan Army (Urdu: پاک فوج Pak Fauj (IPA: Pɑkʰ fɒ~ɔd͡ʒ); reporting name: PA) is the uniform service branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. The Pakistan Army came into existence after the independence of Pakistan in 1947. The Pakistan Army is a volunteer professional fighting force.According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) it has an active force of 725,000 personnel in April 2013.The Constitution of Pakistan contains a provision for conscription, but it has never been imposed.

The primary mandate and mission of the army is to "dedicated to the service of the nation."[4] Since establishment in 1947, the army (along with its inter–services: Navy, Marines and PAF) has been involved in four wars with neighboring India and several border skirmishes with Afghanistan. Since 1947, it has maintain strong presence, along with its inter-services, in the influential the Arab states during the past Arab-Israeli Wars, and aided the coalition in the first Gulf War. Recently, major joint-operations undertaken by the army include Operation Black Thunderstorm and Operation Rah-e-Nijat. Apart from conflicts, the army has been an active participant in UN missions and played a major role in rescuing trapped American soldiers from Mogadishu of Somalia in 1993 in Operation Gothic Serpent.

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Essay Writting

Below are brief summaries of each of the ten steps to writing an essay.How To Write an Essay can be viewed sequentially, as if going through ten sequential steps in an essay writing process, or can be explored by individual topic.

1. Research: 

Begin the essay writing process by researching your topic, making yourself an expert. Utilize the internet, the academic databases, and the library. Take notes and immerse yourself in the words of great thinkers.

2. Analysis:

Now that you have a good knowledge base, start analyzing the arguments of the essays you're reading. Clearly define the claims, write out the reasons, the evidence. Look for weaknesses of logic, and also strengths. Learning how to write an essay begins by learning how to analyze essays written by others.

3. Brainstorming:

Your essay will require insight of your own, genuine essay-writing brilliance. Ask yourself a dozen questions and answer them. Meditate with a pen in your hand. Take walks and think and think until you come up with original insights to write about.

4. Thesis: 

Pick your best idea and pin it down in a clear assertion that you can write your entire essay around. Your thesis is your main point, summed up in a concise sentence that lets the reader know where you're going, and why. It's practically impossible to write a good essay without a clear thesis.

5. Outline: 

Sketch out your essay before straightway writing it out. Use one-line sentences to describe paragraphs, and bullet points to describe what each paragraph will contain. Play with the essay's order. Map out the structure of your argument, and make sure each paragraph is unified.

6. Introduction:

Now sit down and write the essay. The introduction should grab the reader's attention, set up the issue, and lead in to your thesis. Your intro is merely a buildup of the issue, a stage of bringing your reader into the essay's argument.

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INFLATION

Definition of 'Inflation'

The rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising, and, subsequently, purchasing power is falling. Central banks attempt to stop severe inflation, along with severe deflation, in an attempt to keep the excessive growth of prices to a minimum.

In economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation reflects a reduction in the purchasing power per unit of money – a loss of real value in the medium of exchange and unit of account within the economy. A chief measure of price inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index (normally the consumer price index) over time.

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EDUCATION

EDUCATION

The process of learning the skills that can give you benefit and can give you the unique set of characteristics is known as education. The Education cannot be limited to the study of science or arts only but in fact education is the process of learning the various set of behaviors, the various set of skills and the various aspects of life. It is very difficult to define the term “education” properly because it is an intangible concept. There are various indirect links of education or in other words this process can lead to some other processes as well like wisdom, intelligence, and the knowledge development.

Importance Of Education

In each individual in the universe there are some of the inner hidden characteristics which can lead man to the heights of sky. The only thing required to get this aim is to expose your inner talent by searching yourself. An individual is like gold which is nothing without molding. As mentioned above the term education is not limited to a specific field but it is general term alternative to education.

Stages Of Education

There are various ways through which a person gets the knowledge like early childhood education, which is also known as schooling. In this skills development program at the age of four or five years a small child is given the learning related to various subjects step by step and then the child is also trained about the religion from which he or she belongs. The moral values of the child are also shaped at each step of schooling. After this the late childhood development comes which is also a part of schooling.

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What is Management and its Functions

What is Management & Functions of Management

Ther are four management functions. The Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling an organization’s human, financial, and material resources to increase its effectiveness.

Planning:
In planning, managers establish their organization’s strategy, in other words, how best to allocate and use resources to achieve organizational goals. Much uncertainty and risk surround the decisions of managers during planning, and an understanding of organizational behavior can improve the quality of decision making, increase success, and lower risk.
Organizing:
In organizing, managers establish a structure of relationships that dictate how members of an organization work together to achieve organizational goals. Organizing involves grouping workers into departments, groups, and teams based on the tasks they perform. Organizational behavior offers guidelines on how to organize employees to make the best use of their capabilities and enhance communication and coordination.
Leading:
When leading, managers encourage workers to do a good job and coordinate individual and groups so that all organizational members are working toward organizational goals. The study of different leadership methodsand how to match leadership styles to the characteristics of the organization is a major concern of organizational behavior.
Controlling:
When controlling, managers monitor and evaluate individual, group, and organizational performance to see whether organizational goals are being achieved. Knowledge of organizational behavior allows managers to understand and accurately diagnose work situations and pinpoint the need for corrective action or strive to maintain and improve performance. Several processes at the individual or group levels (e.g., personality conflicts, poor job design) may cause poor performance. Managers perform their four functions by assuming a number of roles in organizations. A role is a set of behaviors or tasks a person is expected to perform because of the position she or he holds in a group or organization.

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HTML LANGUAGE

What is HTML?

The HTML lang attribute can be used to declare the language of a Web page or a portion of a Web page. This is meant to assist search engines and browsers. 

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Leadership Styles‏

Leadership Styles‏:(Leadership)

In 1939, a group of researchers led by psychologist Kurt Lewin set out to identify different styles of leadership. While further research has identified more specific types of leadership, this early study was very influential and established Some major leadership styles.

There Are some leadership styles are as follow:

1. Transactional Leadership

This leadership style starts with the idea that team members agree to obey their leader when they accept a job. The "transaction" usually involves the organization paying team members in return for their effort and compliance. The leader has a right to "punish" team members if their work doesn't meet an appropriate standard.

Although this might sound controlling and paternalistic, transactional leadership offers some benefits. For one, this leadership style clarifies everyone's roles and responsibilities. Another benefit is that, because transactional leadership judges team members on performance, people who are ambitious or who are motivated by external rewards – including compensation – often thrive.

The downside of this leadership style is that team members can do little to improve their job satisfaction. It can feel stifling, and it can lead to high staff turnover.

Transactional leadership is really a type of management, not a true leadership style, because the focus is on short-term tasks. It has serious limitations for knowledge-based or creative work. However, it can be effective in other situations.

2. Autocratic Leadership

Autocratic leadership is an extreme form of transactional leadership, where leaders have complete power over their people. Staff and team members have little opportunity to make suggestions, even if these would be in the team's or the organization's best interest.

The benefit of autocratic leadership is that it's incredibly efficient. Decisions are made quickly, and work gets done.

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PERCEPTION

DEFINITION  OF PERCEPTION

The process by which people translate sensory impressions into a coherent and unified view of the world around them. Though necessarily based on incomplete and unverified (or unreliable) information, perception is equated with reality for most practical purposes and guides human behavior in general.

Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, taste smell and taste. It also includes what is known as proprioception, a set of senses involving the ability to detect changes in body positions and movements. It also involves the cognitive processes required to process information, such as recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent.

SEVEN TYPE OF PERCEPTION

1. NAIGAM NAYA PERCEPTION

NAIGAM NAYA  Perception purpose-based viewpoint: In this viewpoint, the purpose of the activity is taken to represent the entire activity. For example, when a person who is carrying golf clubs is questioned "What are you doing?", he answers, "I am playing golf." In another instance, when we ask a person carrying groceries to the kitchen "What are you doing?", he may reply, "I am cooking meals." The person carrying golf clubs is not actually playing golf but he is involved in an activity whose ultimate goal is playing golf. Similarly, the person carrying groceries is actually not cooking but carrying groceries is part of a series of activities that lead to cooking. This is purpose-based viewpoint.

 2. SAMGRAH NAYA PERCEPTION

 SAMGRAH NAYA Perceptionclass-based viewpoint: In this viewpoint, several things which are essentially similar and which are not incompatible are considered together. Thus class-based viewpoint considers an entire class or group. For example, the word 'citizen' is used for all men and women living in a country without any regard to their gender, color, ethnicity, employment, etc. Similarly, the word 'entity' refers to living as well as non-living entities. Such descriptions are objects of class-based viewpoint.

 3. VYAVAHAAR NAYA PERCEPTION

VYAVAHAAR NAYA Perception analytic viewpoint: This viewpoint examines a certain object or situation based on conventional (popular) ideas. In the above example, considering the citizens such as doctors, lawyers, businessmen, engineers and teachers separately, is the object of analytic viewpoint. In the other example of entities, the analytic viewpoint may consider living and non-living entities separately.

 4. RIJUSUTRA NAYA PERCEPTION

 RIJUSUTRA NAYA Perception,the viewpoint of momentariness: This viewpoint focuses only on the present state or form of the object. All things in the universe undergo transformations continuously. The first three viewpoints do not focus on these transformations. However, the viewpoint of momentariness recognizes the fact that transformations occur in the object but it considers only the state of the object that exists at the present time. For example, a gold coin was turned into a ring from which a necklace can be made later. The viewpoint of momentariness will consider the present mode only, that is, of the ring.

 5. SHABD NAYA PERCEPTION

SHABD NAYA Perception, the viewpoint of terminology: This viewpoint differentiates between terms and names on the basis of their meanings. An example of the viewpoint of terminology are the words 'INDRA'. 'SHAKRA' and 'PURANDAR' which are used to represent the lord of heavenly beings.

 6. SAMABHIROODH NAYA PERCEPTION

 SAMABHIROODH NAYA Perception, the viewpoint of derivatives: This viewpoint differentiates between terms based on their roots. As the name implies, this viewpoint examines the various terms according to their roots. In the case of the example of the lord of heavenly beings, the viewpoint of derivatives distinguishes between the meanings of 'INDRA'. 'SHAKRA' and 'PURANDAR'; 'INDRA' means prosperous, 'SHAKRA' means powerful and 'PURANDAR' means destroyer of enemies.

 7. EVAMBHOOT NAYA PERCEPTION

EVAMBHOOT NAYA Perception the viewpoint of manifestation: Based on this viewpoint, a person (or an object) is considered to be what the name (term) implies only when he (it) is functioning according to the exact meaning of the term. Thus the lord of heavenly beings is called 'PURANDAR' only when he is destroying his enemies and a doctor is called a surgeon only when he is operating on a patient.

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MANAGEMENT FUNCTION

What are Biographical Characteristics

Biographical Characteristics

1. Finding and analyzing the variables that have an impact on employee productivity, absence,
turnover, and satisfaction is often complicated.
2. Many of the concepts—motivation, or power, politics or organizational culture—are hard to assess.
3. Other factors are more easily definable and readily available—data that can be obtained from an
employee’s personnel file and would include
characteristics such as:
• Age
• Gender
• Marital status
• tenure

(A) AGE

1. The relationship between age and job performance is increasing in importance.
• First, there is a widespread belief that job performance declines with increasing age.
• Second, the workforce is aging; workers over 55 are the fastest growing sector of the
workforce.
2. Employers’ perceptions are mixed.
• They see a number of positive qualities that older workers bring to their jobs,
specifically experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.
• Older workers are also perceived as lacking flexibility and as being resistant to new
technology.
• Some believe that the older you get, the less likely you are to quit your job. That
conclusion is based on studies of the age-turnover relationship.
3. It is tempting to assume that age is also inversely related to absenteeism.
• Most studies do show an inverse relationship, but close examination finds that the ageabsence
relationship is partially a function of whether the absence is avoidable or
unavoidable.
• In general, older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence. However, they have
higher rates of unavoidable absence, probably due to their poorer health associated with
aging and longer recovery periods when injured.
4. There is a widespread belief that productivity declines with age and that individual skills
decay over time.
• Reviews of the research find that age and job performance are unrelated.
• This seems to be true for almost all types of jobs, professional and nonprofessional.
5. The relationship between age and job satisfaction is mixed.
• Most studies indicate a positive association between age and satisfaction, at least up to
age 60.
• Other studies, however, have found a U-shaped relationship. When professional and
nonprofessional employees are separated, satisfaction tends to continually increase
among professionals as they age, whereas it falls among nonprofessionals during
middle age and then rises again in the later years.

(B). GENDER

1. There are few, if any, important differences between men and women that will affect their
job performance, including the areas of:
• Problem-solving
• Analytical skills
• Competitive drive
• Motivation
• Sociability
• Learning ability
2. Women are more willing to conform to authority, and men are more aggressive and more
likely than women to have expectations of success, but those differences are minor.
3. There is no evidence indicating that an employee’s gender affects job satisfaction.
4. There is a difference between men and women in terms of preference for work schedules.
• Mothers of preschool children are more likely to prefer part-time work, flexible work
schedules, and telecommuting in order to accommodate their family responsibilities.
5. Absence and turnover rates
• Women’s quit rates are similar to men’s.
• The research on absence consistently indicates that women have higher rates of
absenteeism.
• The logical explanation: cultural expectation that has historically placed home and
family responsibilities on the woman.

(C) MARITAL STATUS

1. There are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of marital status on
job productivity.
2. Research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences, undergo fewer
turnovers, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are their unmarried coworkers.
3. More research needs to be done on the other statuses besides single or married, such as
divorce, domestic partnering, etc..

(D) TENURE 

1. The issue of the impact of job seniority on job performance has been subject to
misconceptions and speculations.
2. Extensive reviews of the seniority-productivity relationship have been conducted:
• There is a positive relationship between tenure and job productivity.
• There is a negative relationship between tenure to absence.
• Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining turnover.
• Tenure has consistently been found to be negatively related to turnover and has been
suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnover.
• The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related.
Individual differences can be divided into personality and ability differences. Understanding the nature,
determinants, and consequences of individual differences is essential for managing organizational behavior.
An appreciation of the nature of individual differences is necessary to understand why people behave in
certain ways in an organization.
1. Organizational outcomes predicted by personality include job satisfaction, work stress, and
leadership effectiveness. Personality is not a useful predictor of organizational outcomes when
there are strong situational constraints. Because personality tends to be stable over time,
managers should not expect to change personality in the short run. Managers should accept
workers’ personalities as they are and develop effective ways to deal with people.
2. Feelings, thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors in an organization are determined by the interaction
of personality and situation.
3. The Big Five personality traits are extraversion (positive affectivity), neuroticism (negative
affectivity), agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Other personality
traits particularly relevant to organizational behavior include locus of control, self-monitoring,
self-esteem, Type A and Type B personality, and the needs for achievement, affiliation, and
power.
4. In addition to possessing different personalities, workers also differ in their abilities, or
capabilities. The two major types of ability are cognitive and physical ability.
5. Types of cognitive ability can be arranged in a hierarchy with general intelligence at the top.
Specific types of cognitive include: verbal, numerical, reasoning, deductive, ability to see
relationships, memory, spatial, and perceptual.
6. There are two types of physical ability: motor skills (the ability to manipulate objects) and
physical skills (a person’s fitness and strength).
7. Both nature and nurture contribute to determining physical and cognitive ability. A third, recently
identified, ability is emotional intelligence.
8. In organizations, ability can be managed by selecting individuals who have the abilities needed to
accomplish tasks, placing workers in jobs that capitalize on their abilities, and training workers to
enhance their ability levels.

MANAGEMENT FUNCTION

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